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Magnesium

About 50% of the body's magnesium is found in the bone. Other places where the compound is present include blood, inside cells of body tissues, and organs.

The compound has a key role in over 300 enzymatic reactions in metabolism.

It activates enzymes, contributes to energy production, helps regulate calcium levels as well as copper, zinc, potassium, vitamin D, and other important nutrients in the body.

In addition, research also suggests that it helps regulate blood sugar levels and promotes normal blood pressure.

From anti aging viewpoint, it is also important to notice that the compound improves the absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal tract, which has lead to some suggesting that the supplement together with calcium can help prevent bone mass loss on women, especially around the time of menopause.

Magnesium - Studies

Magnesium intake from food and supplements is associated with bone mineral density in healthy older white subjects. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2005 Nov;53(11):1875-80. Ryder KM, Shorr RI, Bush AJ, Kritchevsky SB, Harris T, Stone K.

Clinical efficacy of magnesium supplementation in patients with type 2 diabetes. J Am Coll Nutr. 2004 Oct;23(5):506S-509S.

[Magnesium as an anti-arrhythmic therapy principle in supraventricular and ventricular cardiac arrhythmias] Z Kardiol. 1996;85 Suppl 6:135-45.

Altura BM, Altura BT. New perspectives on the role of magnesium in the pathophysiology of the cardiovascular system. Magnesium. 1985;4(5-6):226-244.

American Diabetes Association. Magnesium supplementation in the treatment of diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1992;15:1065-1067.

Appel LJ. Nonpharmacologic therapies that reduce blood pressure: a fresh perspective. Clin Cardiol. 1999;22(Suppl. III):III1-III5.

Balfour JA, Wiseman LR. Moxifloxacin. Drugs. 1999;57(3):363-374.

Baumgaertel A. Alternative and controversial treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatr Clin of North Am. 1999;46(5):977-992.

Bendich A. The potential for dietary supplements to reduce premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000;19(1):3-12.

Britton J, Pavord I, Richards K, Wisniewski A, Knox A, Lewis S. Dietary magnesium, lung function, wheezing, and airway hyperactivity in a random adult population sample. Lancet. 1994; 344:357–362.

Brouwers JR. Drug interactions with quinolone antibacterials. Drug Saf. 1992;7:268-281.

Bureau I, Anderson RA, Arnaud J, Raysiguier Y, Favier AE, Roussel AM. Trace mineral status in post menopausal women: impact of hormonal replacement therapy. J Trace Elem Med Biol. 2002;16(1):9-13.

Burgess E, Lewanczuk R, Bolli P, et al. Recommendations on potassium, magnesium and calcium. CMAJ. 1999;160:S35-S45.

Cashman KD, Flynn A. Optimal nutrition: calcium, magnesium and phosphorous. Proc Nutr Soc. 1999;58:477-487.

Chiladakis JA, Stathopoulos C, Davlouros P, Manolis AS. Intravenous magnesium sulfate versus diltiazem in paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Int J Cardiol. 2001;79(2-3):287-291.

Ciarallo L, Brousseau D, Reinert S. Higher-dose intravenous magnesium therapy for children with moderate to severe acute asthma. Arch Ped Adol Med. 2000;154(10):979-983.

Ciarallo L, Sauer AH, Shannon MW. Intravenous magnesium therapy for moderate to severe pediatric asthma: results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Pediatr. 1996;129(6):809-814.

Crippa G, Sverzellati E, Girogi Pierfranceschi M, Carrara GC. Magnesium and cardiovascular drugs: interactions and therapeutic role. Ann Ital Med Int. 1999;14(1):40-45.

Dacey MJ. Hypomagnesemic disorders. Crit Care Clin. 2001;17(1):155-173.

Davis WB, Wells SR, Kuller JA, Thorp JM Jr. Analysis of the risks associated with calcium channel blockade: implications for the obstetrician-gynecologist. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1997; 52(3):198-201.

Demirkaya S, Vural O, Dora B, Topcuoglu MA. Efficacy of intravenous magnesium sulfate in the treatment of acute migraine attacks. Headache. 2001;41(2):171-177.

De Valk HW. Magnesium in diabetes mellitus. Neth J Med. 1999;54(4):139-146.

Diener HC, Kaube H, Limmroth V. A practical guide to the management and prevention of migraine. Drugs. 1998;56(5):811-824.

Dorup I, Skajaa K, Thybo NK. Oral magnesium supplementation restores the concentrations of magnesium, potassium and sodium-potassium pumps in skeletal muscle of patients receiving diuretic treatment. J Internal Med. 1993;233(2):117-123.

Duley L, Gulmezoglu AM. Magnesium sulphate versus lytic cocktail for eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001;(1):CD002960.

Duley L, Henderson-Smart D. Magnesium sulphate versus phenytoin for eclampsia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD000128.

Dyckner T. Relation of cardiovascular disease to potassium and magnesium deficiencies. Am J Cardiol. 1990;65(23):44K-46K.

Facchinetti F, Borella P, Sances G, Fioroni L, Nappi RE, Genazzani AR. Oral magnesium successfully relieves premenstrual mood changes. Obstet Gynecol. 1991;78(2):177-181.

Facchinetti F, Sances G, Borella P, Genazzani AR, Nappi G. Magnesium prophylaxis of menstrual migraine: effects on intracellular magnesium. Headache. 1991;31(5):298-301.

Fox C, Ramsoomair D, Carter C. Magnesium: its proven and potential clinical significance. [Review]. South Med J. 2001;94(12):1195-1201.

Geerling BJ, Stockbrugger RW, Brummer RJ. Nutrition and inflammatory bowel disease: an update. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1999;34(suppl 230):95-105.

Gilliland FD, Berhane KT, Li YF, Kim DH, Margolis HG. Dietary magnesium, potassium, sodium, and children's lung function. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155(2):125-131.

Hassan TB, Jagger C, Barnett DB. A randomised trial to investigate the efficacy of magnesium sulphate for refractory ventricular fibrillation. Emerg Med J. 2002;19(1):57-62.

Herzberg M, Lusky A, Blonder J, Frenkel Y. The effect of estrogen replacement therapy on zinc in serum and urine. Obstet Gynecol. 1996;87(6):1035-1040.

Heyka R. Lifestyle management and prevention of hypertension. In: Rippe J, ed. Lifestyle Medicine. 1st ed. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Science; 1999:109-119.

Hijazi N, Abalkhail B, Seaton A. Diet and childhood asthma in a society in transition: a study in urban and rural Saudi Arabia. Thorax. 2000;55:775-779.

Hines Burnham T, et al, eds. Drug Facts and Comparisons. St. Louis, MO:Facts and Comparisons;2000:1286.

Howard JM, Davies S, Hunnisett A. Red cell magnesium and glutathione peroxidase in infertile women: effects of oral supplementation with magnesium and selenium. Magnes Res. 1994;7(1):49-57.

Hornyak M, Voderholzer U, Hohagen F, Berger M, Riemann D. Magnesium therapy for periodic leg movements-related insomnia and restless legs syndrome: an open pilot study. Sleep. 1998:21(5)501-505.

Ince C, Schulman SP, Quigley JF, et al. Usefulness of magnesium sulfate in stabilizing cardiac repolarization in heart failure secondary to ischemic cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 2001;88(3):224-229.

ISIS-4 (Fourth International Study of Infarct Survival) Collaborative Group. ISIS-4: a randomized factorial trial assessing early oral captropril, oral mononitrate, and intravenous magnesium sulfate in 58,050 patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction. Lancet. 1995;345(8951):669-685.

Iso H, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. Prospective study of calcium, potassium, and magnesium intake and risk of stroke in women. Stroke. 1999;30:1772-1779.

Johnson S. The multifaceted and widespread pathology of magnesium deficiency. Med Hypotheses. 2001;56(2):163-170.

Kao WH, Folsom AR, Nieto FJ, Mo JP, Watson RL, Brancati FL. Serum and dietary magnesium and the risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159:2151-2159.

Kara M, Hasinoff BB, McKay DW, et al. Clinical and chemical interactions between iron preparations and ciprofloxacin. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1991;31(3):257-261.

Kass-Annese B. Alternative therapies for menopause. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2000;43(1):162-183.

Kendler BS. Recent nutritional approaches to the prevention and therapy of cardiovascular disease. Prog Cardiovasc Nurs. 1997;12(3):3-23.

Kinlay S, Buckley NA. Magnesium sulfate in the treatment of ventricular arrhythmias due to digoxin toxicity. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1995;33:55-59.

Kirschmann GJ, Kirschmann JD. Nutrition Almanac. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill;1996:120-123.

Kivisto KT, Neuvonen PJ. Enhancement of absorption and effect of glipizide by magnesium hydroxide. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1991;49(1):39-43.

Klevay LM, Milne DB. Low dietary magnesium increases supraventricular ectopy. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;75(3):550-554.

Knochel JP. Disorders of magnesium metabolism. In: Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Isselbacher KJ, eds. Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 14th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc; 1998:2263.

Kozielec T, Starobrat-Hermelin B. Assessment of magnesium levels in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Magnes Res. 1997;10(2):143-148.

Krauss RM, Eckel RH, Howard B, et al. AHA dietary guidelines. Revision 2000: A statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2000;102:2284-2299.

Kushner JM, Peckman HJ, Snyder CR. Seizures associated with fluoroquinolones. Ann Pharmacother. 2001;35(10):1194-1198.

Lambs L, Brion M, Berthon G. Metal ion-tetracycline interactions in biological fluids. Part 3. Formation of mixed-metal ternary complexes of tetracycline, oxytetracycline, doxycycline and minocycline with calcium and magnesium, and their involvement in the bioavailability of these antibiotics in blood plasma. Agents Actions. 1984;14:743-750.

Lehto P, Laine K, Kivisto KT, et al. The effect of pH on the in-vitro dissolution of three second-generation sulphoylurea preparations: mechanism of antacid-sulphonylurea interaction. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1996;48(9):899-901.

Li RC, Lo KN, Lam JS, et al. Effects of order of magnesium exposure on the postantibiotic effect and bactericidal activity of ciprofloxacin. J Chemother. 1999;11(4):24324-24327.

Liu S, Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, et al. A prospective study of whole-grain intake and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in US women. Am J Pub Health. 2000;90(9):1409-1415.

Lucas MJ, Leveno KJ, Cunningham FG. A comparison of magnesium sulfate with phenytoin for the prevention of eclampsia. N Engl J Med. 1995;333(4):201-205.

Matsumura M, Nakashima A, Tofuku Y. Electrolyte disorders following massive insulin overdose in a patient with type 2 diabetes. Intern Med. 2000;39(1):55-57.

Mauskop A. Alternative therapies in headache. Is there a role? Med Clin North Am. 2001;85(4):1077-1084.

Mauskop A, Altura BM. Role of magnesium in the pathogenesis and treatment of migraines. Clin Neurosci. 1998;5(1):24-27.

Mazzotta G, Sarchielli P, Alberti A, Gallai V. Intracellular Mg++ concentration and electromyographical ischemic test in juvenile headache. Cephalgia. 1999;19:802-809.

Mersebach H, Rasmussen AK, Kirkegaard L, Feldt-Rasmussen U. Intestinal absorption of levothyroxine by antacids and laxatives: case stories and in vitro experiments. Pharmacol Toxicol. 1999;84(3):107-109.

Mervaala EM, Malmberg L, Teravainen TL, Laakso J, Vapaatalo H, Karppanen H. Influence of dietary salts on the cardiovascular effects of low-dose combination of ramipril and felodipine in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Br J Pharmacol. 1998;123(2):195-204.

Moulin DE. Systemic drug treatment for chronic musculoskeletal pain. Clin J Pain. 2001;17(4 Suppl):S86-S93.

Muir KW. Magnesium for neuroprotection in ischaemic stroke: rationale for use and evidence of effectiveness. CNS Drugs. 2001;15(12):921-930.

Muneyyirci-Delale O, Nacharaju VL, Dalloul M, Altura BM, Altura BT. Serum ionized magnesium and calcium in women after menopause: Inverse relation of estrogen with ionized magnesium. Fertil Steril. 1999;71:869-872.

Naggar VF, Khalil SA. Effect of magnesium trisilicate on nitrofurantoin absorption. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1979;25(6):857-863.

Neuvonen PJ, Kivisto KT. Enhancement of drug absorption by antacids. An unrecognized drug interaction. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1994;27(2):120-128.

Neuvonen PJ. Interactions with the absorption of tetracyclines. Drugs. 1976;11(1):45-54.

Nutrients and Nutritional Agents. In: Kastrup EK, Hines Burnham T, Short RM, et al, eds. Drug Facts and Comparisons. St. Louis, Mo: Facts and Comparisons; 2000:4-5.

Ng SY. Hair calcium and magnesium levels in patients with fibromyalgia: a case center study. J Manipulative Pysiol Ther. 1999;22(9):586-593.

Nielson FH. Studies on the relationship between boron and magnesium which possibly affects the formation and maintenance of bones. Magnesium Trace Elem. 1990;9:61-69.

Paolisso G. Daily magnesium supplements improve glucose handling in elderly subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 1992;55:1161-1167.

Patrick L. Nutrients and HIV: part 2—vitamins A and E, zinc, B-vitamins, and magnesium. Alt Med Rev. 2000;5(1):39-51.

Pearlstein T, Steiner M. Non-antidepressant treatment of premenstrual syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000;61 Suppl 12:22-27.

Peikart A, Wilimzig C, Kohne-Volland R. Prophylaxis of migraine with oral magnesium: results from a prospective, multi-center, placebo-controlled and double-blind randomized study. Cephalagia. 1996;16(4):257-263.

Pfaffenrath V, Wessely P, Meyer C, et al. Magnesium in the prophylaxis of migraine – a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Cephalagia. 1996;16(6):436-440.

Physicians' Desk Reference. 55th ed. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics Co., Inc.; 2001:1418-1422.

Reif S, Klein I, Lubin F, Farbstein M, Hallak A, Gilat T. Pre-illness dietary factors in inflammatory bowel disease. Gut. 1997;40:754-760.

Rowe BH, Edmonds ML, Spooner CH, Camargo CA. Evidence-based treatments for acute asthma. [Review]. Respir Care. 2001;46(12):1380-1390.

Russell IJ, Michalek JE, Flechas JD, Abraham GE. Treatment of fibromyalgia syndrome with Super Malic: a randomized, double blind, placebo controlled, crossover pilot study. J Rheumatol. 1995;22(5):953-958.

Sacks FM, Willett WC, Smith A, Brown LB, Rosner B, Moore TJ. Effect on blood pressure of potassium, calcium, and magnesium in women with low habitual intake. Hypertension. 1998;31:131–138.

Saunders N, Hammersley B. Magnesium for eclampsia. Lancet. 1995;346(8978):788-789.

Schumacher M, Peraire J, Domingo JL. Trace elements in patients with HIV-1 infection. Trace Elem Electorlytes. 1994;11:130-134.

Seelig MS. Auto-immune complications of D-penicillamine – a possible result of zinc and magnesium depletion and of pyridoxine inactivation. J Am Coll Nutr. 1982;1(2):207-214.

Seelig MS. ISIS 4: clinical controversy regarding magnesium infusion, thromolytic therapy, and acute myocardial infarction. Nutr Rev. 1995;53(9):261-264.

Shils ME. Magnesium. In: Shils ME, Olson JA, Shike M, Ross AC, eds. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. 9th ed. Baltimore, Md: Williams & Wilkins; 1999:169–192, A127–A128.

Skorodin MS, Tenholder MF, Yetter B, et al. Magnesium sulfate in exacertaions of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155(5):496-500.

Skurnik JH, Bogden JD, Baker H. Micronutrient profiles in HIV-1 infected heterosexual adults. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1996;12:75-83.

Starobrat-Hermelin B, Kozielec T. The effects of magnesium physiological supplementation on hyperactivity in children with attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD): positive response to magnesium oral loading test. Magnesium Research. 1997; 10(2):149-156.

Taylor M. Alternatives to conventional hormone replacement therapy. Compr Ther. 1997;23(8):514-532.

Toraman F, Karabulut EH, Alhan HC, Dagdelen S, Tarcan S. Magnesium infusion dramatically decreases the incidence of atrial fibrillation after coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg. 2001;72(4):1256-1261.

Tramer MR, Schneider J, Marti RA, Rifat K. Role of magnesium sulfate in postoperative analgesia. Anesthesiology. 1996;84(2):340-347.

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Woods KL, Fletcher S. Long-term outcome after intravenous magnesium sulfate in suspected acute myocardial infarction: the second Leicester Intravenous Magnesium Intervention Trial (LIMIT-2). Lancet. 1994;343(8901):816-819.


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